The Advantages of Carbon Fibre Components Versus Alternative Composite Fibres

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Carbon fibre components versus alternative composite fibres.

Due to their low cost, high tensile strength, high impact resistance and good chemical resistance, glass fibers are used extensively in commercial composite applications. However, their properties cannot match those of carbon fiber components for high-performance composite applications. They posses a relatively low modulus and have inferior fatigue properties compared to carbon fiber components. The three most common glass fibers used in composites are E-glass, S-2 glass and quartz.

Aramid fibers have a combination of good tensile strength and modulus, light weight, excellent toughness with an outstanding ballistic and impact resistance. However, due to the lack of adhesion to the matrix, they exhibit relatively poor transverse tension, longitudinal compression and interlaminar shear strengths.

Carbon fibre components and graphite fibre components are the most prevalent fiber forms in high performance composite structures. Carbon and graphite fibres can be produced with a wide range of properties; however, they generally exhibit superior tensile and compressive strength, possess high moduli, have excellent fatigue characteristics and do not corrode. Carbon and graphite fibers can be made from rayon, pitch or PAN precursors, although rayon is rarely used because of its low yield and high cost. PAN-based carbon fibers having strengths ranging from 500 to 1,000 ksi and moduli ranging from 30 to 45 msi with elongations of up to 2% are commercially available.

Fibres and Reinforcements: The String That Provides the Strength.

Pitch-based high-modulus graphite fibers having a modulus between 50 and 145 msi are often used in space structures requiring high rigidity. Two-dimensional woven products are usually offered as 0°, 90° constructions. Weaves are made on a loom by interlacing two orthogonal (mutually perpendicular) sets of yarns (warp and fill). The warp direction is parallel to the length of the roll, while the fill, weft, or woof direction is perpendicular to the length of the roll. Weaves may be classified by the pattern of interlacing including plain weaves, basket weaves, satin weaves, twill weaves, leno and mock leno weaves. Reinforced mats (chopped fibers or swirled fibers) and chopped fibers are also available for parts requiring lower mechanical properties.

Carbon fibre prepregs.

Prepregging is a process in which a predetermined amount of an advanced resin is put on the fibres by the supplier. It can be accomplished by (1) hot-melt impregnation, (2) resin filming or (3) solvent impregnation. Hot-melt impregnation has been replaced to a large extent with the resin filming process because of the better quality and tighter controls obtainable with resin filming. Solvent impregnation is used for materials that are not amenable to hot melt or resin filming; however, the presence of residual solvent can cause processing problems in the form of voids and porosity during cure.

Reinforcing fibres can be supplied in dry unimpregnated forms or as prepregs ready for lay-up.

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Why Security Is Such a Major Concern in the Aviation Industry

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The aviation industry is a critical sub-sector of every economy the world over. We rely on the aviation industry not only for transportation of people - both for business and pleasure but also for transit of cargo. The aviation industry is a major clog in the drivers of every economy and as such any variable affecting aviation affects our economies significantly.

Security during flights and in the aviation industry in general covering airports and related facilities is critical. The world security concerns have been further heightened by terrorism and this has indeed been a headache for players in the aviation industry. Pilots, flight attendants, airport security teams and other ground crew are always alert to these security concerns.

In almost all cases the security issues in the aviation industry would have fatal consequences if not prevented and thus the reason security is such a major concern to industry players. Although security has always been a major consideration in flights, the 9/11 attacks on US airspace was a major wake up call for stakeholders. It really changed the general approach to flight safety and aviation security as a whole.

The players in the aviation industry have been forced to look at new and innovative ways of ensuring passenger safety. Yet flight security has to be carefully enforced so as not to be too intrusive on privacy and passengers' dignity is not infringed. The issue of flight security therefore becomes a delicate balance for industry players who want to maintain excellent customer service as well as world-class security for their passengers.

In a bid to keep ahead of terrorists and other threats to security, the aviation players have instituted many changes to their security systems. For instance the world over there is a noticeable increase in presence of security personnel in airports. Further the airlines are today working more closely with airport security to ensure that flight security is not compromised. In addition to this passenger screening has become more comprehensive and now involves the use of technologically advanced systems and gadgets.

With increasing concerns some airlines are taking more radical route to try to ensure flight safety. Some have gone as far as arming some of their pilots and having armored cockpit access doors. The merits and demerits of such drastic measures are subject of heated debate. However these are all pointers to how aviation security is a critical importance.

The media coverage that follows any mishap in the aviation industry coupled with the subsequent panic of commuters makes the aviation industry very attractive to terrorists and other saboteurs. Although the overall impact of such action is to the aviation industry is not necessarily a decline in commuters, the initial publicity and trauma to both airline staff and passengers works well for the terrorist.

Now what industry players need to get right is the balance between ensuring that passenger rights and dignity is respected and yet have thorough pre-flight screening. This of course is no mean task with saboteurs being creative and civil rights groups opposing most of the security measures put in place to screen passengers.

As a bush and aerial survey pilot. I have been through the entire process of pilot training from a Private Pilot License, Instrument Rating through to a Commercial Pilot License.

I know how hard it is to break into the aviation industry when one has little or no experience. I have therefore created website and aviation information directory: Global Aviation Guide, for pilots, flight engineers, cabin crew, and aviation enthusiasts. At the Global Aviation Guide website you will find a wealth of aviation articles, aviation jobs, flight schools, and general aviation information.

I have worked in various career fields most recently as an Instructional Designer and Technical writer. This helps me understand the importance of creating and writing quality articles and providing quality information. Find quality articles that I have created on the Global Aviation Guide website: http://www.globalaviationguide.com/articles/

What Makes Private Jets So Very Popular in the World Today?

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Air travel has its share of advantages such as you can reach your destinations in short time spans through a comfortable and hassle free journey. The emergence of air travel which could be afforded by the super rich and the elite class has now become cheap and is accessible by one and all. The opening of up the sky and expansion of various airlines has lead to cheaper air fares and more flight options available to interested travelers.

The preference of air travel over land or water journeys has led the emergence of chartering of airplanes for special flights. Though these charter flights are slightly expensive but considering the purpose of the trip, they can be afforded by those who wish to fly through private jets.

Private jets are preferred over normal airline flights by celebrities, business owners or heads and many more. The flight schedule can be timed as per their schedule to ensure they arrive at their destination on time without wasting much time by traveling to multiple destinations or undertake airport transfers. These flights are specially planned upon and with special arrangements for their clearing; the travelers have to simply board the flight and travel. They are not required to follow regular clearance procedures or even avail a boarding pass which save upon a considerable amount of time.

Private jets can be hired on special occasions including birthdays, anniversaries and many more to make the occasion even more memorable. There are specially designed private jets which offer the extra edge of comfort and service to suit the occasion for which the jet has been hired.

At times, on account of medical emergencies where time factor plays the most crucial role, availing the service of a private jet serves the purpose of transporting the patient to receive the preferred treatment in the least possible time. Special private jets fully equipped with medical equipment for preliminary as well as specialized medical care are also available and can be chartered as and when the need arises.

Choosing the right private jet is equally important for there are a wide range of them available for charter. Some factors to be borne in mind include passenger capacity, speed, amenities and facilities available aboard the plane, the number of crew members, its flying credentials and other details. The Bombardier Global Express XRS is a widely acclaimed and luxurious business jet available for charter services. With immaculate and luxurious interiors which offer enhanced comfort and space, the Bombardier Global Express XRS does offer an unbelievable flying experience. The jet is capable of undertaking long distance flights and tackling tough airfields and other flying challenges.

The use of Private jets has increased greatly for more people wish to save on time and energy and reach their destination on time. With enhanced security measures, specialized in flight services and dedicated planes, private jet charter services have indeed become the order of the day for those who can afford them.

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The Headsets Aviation Instructors Use

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When deciding on a pilot headset, aviators have many options to consider. Price, warranty, style, features, and quality are all factors that should be given careful consideration. The importance of these factors, along with the multitude of choices on the market, can make selecting an earphone model a daunting task. For assistance in choosing an appropriate model, seek guidance from a certificated flight instructor (CFI).

Flight instructors are valuable sources of information, both in the cockpit and on the ground. Their advice can be beneficial in matters not directly related to flight lessons. Consult CFIs for recommendations on headsets aviation instructors would use. A simple conversation with a CFI or two could yield valuable insight into which models these professionals consider the market's top values.

Aviation instructors are great sources of information for a variety of reasons. For starters, they've been involved in aviation for at least a few years and have flown extensively to acquire their ratings and certifications. Many have flown a variety of aircraft, from single pistons to light twins to turboprops. More than likely, any instructor you approach will have tried at least a few different brands of headphones. Approach them for their unbiased opinions on the models they've used.

What type of flying do you plan to do the most? Do you foresee sticking with single engine piston planes? Are you looking to move up to a light twin? Do you plan to pursue a career in corporate aviation? Your answers to these questions will probably influence a CFI's recommendations. The ideal headset for a twin turboprop doesn't necessarily make it the best choice for a light sport aircraft. Flight instructors will know what's reasonable for your aircraft of choice and can help narrow down a list of suitable headphones.

Is there a particular brand of earphones aviation instructors abhor? If you get a less than glowing review about a certain manufacturer or model, seek out the reasons the instructor dislikes it. Unlike manufacturers' websites, which paint rosy pictures about the models they offer, CFIs have no incentive to endorse a model that doesn't measure up. Regardless of web info, give some weight to a flight instructor's opinion.

Do you think a price is too high or low for a model you're considering? Ask a flight instructor about the price of the model in question. Perhaps it has features you're not familiar with. Maybe the quality commands a higher sum than the alternatives available. A CFI can help you sort through the pricing conundrum. A noticeable price gap between seemingly similar models could reflect the durability of the models in question. A cheaper pair might fall apart after a few years while the pricey alternative could soldier on for decades. With the aid of an instructor, you're more likely to uncover helpful info about the options you're considering.

Does an instructor fail to recommend the model he uses? If so, be sure to ask about it. Very few pilots would voluntarily fly with a headset they don't like. It could be his preferred headset is beyond your budget. Perhaps he flies with an active noise reduction (ANR) model and knows a passive headset is adequate for your plane. Maybe he's purchased a pair with his future corporate aircraft job in mind. There's certainly a reason he isn't advocating his model. Just ask about it and you'll likely discover another pearl of wisdom.

Do you want to try a model or brand before committing to a purchase? Again, consult a CFI for assistance. Most CFIs have more than one headset and might be willing to let you borrow a pair. Schedule a short lesson with an instructor and ask to try his spare model. A quick test flight with a prospective headset is an excellent way to determine its cockpit quality.

Don't let your quest for a pair of earphones overwhelms you. Look at the characteristics of the headsets aviation instructors wear as an aid in narrowing down your list of choices. CFIs have extensive knowledge of aviation-related subjects. Consult a flight instructor on quality headset options and you're likely to receive helpful advice.

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Women in Aviation

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The young adults of this day and age will find it hard to relate with the pride and joy of women from previous generations have every time they see a woman pilot, aircraft engineer or air traffic controller. For many years, these jobs have been an exclusive male affair. Even to this day we have a majority of pilots being men. Up until recent times, there seemed to be an unwritten rule that put men in the pilot's seat and women were automatically give flight attendant roles.

Ever since 1798, when the world watched as the first female pilot took to the skies, there have been enormous challenges that women have had to deal with in the field of piloting. The first black female pilot, Bessie Coleman had to move from the US to France, where she had to learn French, adjust to living abroad, earn her pilot license in a male dominated environment only to go back home and be denied permission to even participate in air shows! It has not been easy but the ladies have pushed on and today we have more lady pilots than anyone would have imagined twenty or fifteen years back.

Even though significant advances have been made as regards women in the aviation industry, there is still a lot of catching up to do. In the United States, which happens to be among the countries with the highest number of female pilots in the world, women pilots are less than 10% of licensed pilots. Considering this as one of the leading countries as far as enrollment of women pilots is concerned shows that there is still a lot more to be done in order to achieve parity between men and women in piloting.

Today there are plenty of organizations for women who are working in the aviation industry. They are constantly working to encourage young women and girls to take up piloting, aircraft engineering and other careers in the aviation industry. There are also lots of resources that women can now access through the Internet and other avenues, to help them learn more about the aviation industry.

With less than 500 female airline captains in the whole world, there are lots of opportunities for ladies who want to go into aviation. Those already in the industry point to some of the challenges that have kept women away from the cockpit as high stress levels, extended durations away from home and finances required for training. Women with young families have found careers in aviation quite challenging, as the work hours and frequent travel tend to be quite incompatible with mothering young children.

However, there is no reason as to why a woman cannot purse her dream of becoming a pilot if she really wants to do so. Many countries around the world now have ladies flying in their military aircraft and they are doing a great job. Israel happens to be one of the countries, which has a large number of lady pilots in their air force. A lot has been achieved but there is still room for more gains to be made in bringing more ladies into aviation as pilots and in other areas of aviation.

As a bush and aerial survey pilot. I have been through the entire process of pilot training from a Private Pilot License, Instrument Rating through to a Commercial Pilot License.

I know how hard it is to break into the aviation industry when one has little or no experience. I have therefore created website and aviation information directory: Global Aviation Guide, for pilots, flight engineers, cabin crew, and aviation enthusiasts. At the Global Aviation Guide website you will find a wealth of aviation articles, aviation jobs, flight schools, and general aviation information.

I have worked in various career fields most recently as an Instructional Designer and Technical writer. This helps me understand the importance of creating and writing quality articles and providing quality information. Find quality articles that I have created on the Global Aviation Guide website: http://www.globalaviationguide.com/articles/

Reasons Why A Flight A School Can Benefit From Flight Simulation Games

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Being a pilot involves activities that are way more complex than riding a bike or driving a car because this type of profession takes a good amount of dedication and special skills. The latter are needed so that one can get all of the necessary knowledge required in order to be given the honors to fly a real aircraft. Flight simulators games are really an important part of the flight training that a flight school provides to its students. If you don't know why, read on because I'll be stating the different reasons why these types of games are used in flight training.

Aside from enduring hours of learning different theories, a flight training student enrolled in a flight school program also needs to go through long hours of hands-on practice before he can become a certified pilot. Different flight schools use different methods when they're training their students but among all of the methods used, flight simulator games are known to be one of the most effective. This is because flight simulator games offer their players the experience of flying a real airplane that's as close to reality as possible. Through this, students get the chance to learn through the close-to-real experience of flying an airplane in a sense that they get the feeling of flying the real thing with real sceneries and real controls. This is the main secret behind the effectiveness of trainings done using flight simulators. Moreover, these games get rid of all the risks and dangers involved in flying a real aircraft. In this way, students don't have to worry much about their lives when they commit errors during training.

Flight simulators come in different varieties ranging from those that allow a student to play a game using a computer to one that allows him to get inside a real cockpit equipped with all the controls that an actual plane has. Aside from the advantages that I have stated above, flight simulators also allow students to practice well without having to spend a lot of money. Moreover, these programs also allow students to fly different types of planes in a wide variety of weather conditions, climates, and sceneries. Lastly, they also allow trainees to fly in difficult situations; during different times of the day; and in different time zones when one is flying from one country to another.

Aside from being really useful in flight schools, flight simulation games can also be enjoyed by people who have a strong passion for flying; those who enjoy flying as a hobby; and those that enjoy flying games. Regardless of the reason for using flight simulators, one should make sure that the one he chooses to use is something that offers a flight experience that's as close to real life as possible.

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Getting Shot Down in a Fighter Plane Dogfight by a UAV Is Going to Be Embarrassing

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In the Hollywood movie Top Gun we saw young studs flying naval fighter planes, and they seemed to be quite cocky, arrogant, but also highly efficient, and skilled. Now then, in the future there will be fighter planes which are unmanned aerial vehicles, run by computer systems which will be doing the dog-fighting. It doesn't matter which country you go to it seems as if all fighter pilots, regardless of nation are equally as self-confident.

However, I would submit to you that there is a rude awakening coming for many of the fighter pilots in the world, not just in an allied nations, but also those rogue nations which may oppose us. What will a fighter pilot think going into combat perhaps knowing that the artificial intelligent autonomous unmanned aerial vehicle that they will engage with in a dogfight or combat is smarter, more adapted, and can take more G forces then they can? That's a scary thought isn't it?

In fact, for a self-confident fighter pilot, perhaps with an earned ego, it might be rather embarrassing, especially if they get shot down, and are able to eject from their fighter plane to live another day. What will they tell their friends, and fellow pilots? Will their fellow pilots see them as inferior, and lacking the talent, and skills necessary to be in that fighter squadron? Even if they are able to shoot down an unmanned aerial vehicle, will anybody really be impressed?

After all, they merely shot down a remote-control or an autonomous robotic aircraft - they didn't shoot down a fighter plane flown by a fighter pilot of another nation with near equal skill and ability. So this causes a huge philosophical and psychological problem for the modern-day fighter pilot, because if they get shot down, it proves they can't compete against a computer, and if they shoot down the computerized aircraft, no one is going to be too impressed because it is man versus machine, and humans are supposed to win; supposedly.

It will be difficult therefore for the fighter pilot to maintain is competitive edge, dealing with the psychological conundrum. However, it also may be a rather quick transition. In other words the concept of human fighter planes competing against superior and agile unmanned aerial vehicles may be short-lived. That transition time may only be 10 years long and eventually there will no longer be human fighter pilots, and it will be machine versus machine, not humans versus machines. Please consider all this and think on it.

Lance Winslow is a retired Founder of a Nationwide Franchise Chain, and now runs the Online Think Tank. Lance Winslow believes writing 24,500 articles by August 24th or 25th will be difficult because all the letters on his keyboard are now worn off now..

Why Aren't There More Female Pilots?

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Are you aware that in 1910, the first woman got her own pilot's license? Her name was the Baroness Raymonde de Laroche in France. An impressive name and an impressive feat back then. Women have most certainly been involved in aviation for longer than a century, so where are all the female pilots?

And how come women only constitute 5% of pilots in the USA?

Though the Baroness got her license over 100 years ago, being a pilot is conventionally a male occupation and even today you will see that each time a pilot is portrayed in the movies, tv and even promotion campaigns for flight educational facilities, it is a man dressed in the pilot's outfit.

Actually, the uniform could very well be a part of the problem because it is very masculine and not at all suited to the female form. That will seem a shallow reason to some but you must consider the perception of doing a job that requires wearing a male uniform.

The training and workplace is suited to appeal more to males as well. The more the amount of women to become pilots, the more other ladies will follow suit, but at this time it usually is a bit unnerving to become one of the few women pilots in a sea of men.

On top of that, the exceedingly high price of flight schooling and time away from home and children while on the job and you can appreciate why it can be a difficult task for a lady to enter the industry.

If you are a woman in quest of inspiration, have a look at the International Society of Women Airline Pilots, a non-profit whose objective it is to encourage future generations of women aviators. They offer awards to notable females whose vocation goals are to become an airline pilot by giving monetary assistance towards pilot certificates and ratings.

Believe it or not, there are many aviation organizations based around women. One in particular holds an affair annually to promote senior high school females to check out a vocation in aviation by pairing them with female guides from the aviation industry.

So, should you be a woman, or girl, whose aspiration it is to at some point become a pilot, look at your choices and search the web for scholarships and grants offered to women. There is much potential for ladies to excel in the aviation sector.

If you are interested in learning more about how to become a pilot, please visit How to Become a Pilot Headquarters at http://www.howtobecomeapilothq.net/

Titanium in Aerospace

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Pure titanium is a silver-colored metal, which has grown as a metal of strategic importance in the last 50 years. Its density is approximately 55% of steel with similar strength. Titanium is a durable, biocompatible metal, which is commonly used in artificial joints, dental implants, and surgical equipment. It also finds use in aerospace and some automotive applications because its operating temperature limit is nearly 500°C. For aerospace structures manufacturing it is supplied in any one of the following forms: titanium billet, titanium bar, titanium plate, titanium sheet, titanium tubes, titanium extrusions or titanium forgings.

Apart from its use as a structural metal it is also added in small quantities to steels and other alloys to increase hardness and strength by the formation of carbides and oxides. Titanium can exist in two allotropic forms: alpha and beta. Its mechanical properties are closely related to these allotropic phases, with the beta phase being much stronger but more brittle than the alpha phase. Hence, titanium alloys are commonly classified as alpha, beta, and alpha-beta alloys. Titanium alloys have attractive engineering properties, which include a desirable combination of moderate weight and high strength, property retention at elevated temperatures, and good corrosion-resistance. These properties provide high values of specific strength, Sylp, which is desirable for transportation systems.

Apart from the commercially pure forms of titanium, there are three principal types of alloys: alpha, beta, and alpha-beta alloys which are available in wrought and cast forms. In recent years some also have become available in powder forms. The system of designations for titanium alloys vary from one standard to another; however, the most prevalent and commonly used system is to name the alloy by its composition. For instance, Ti-4A1-3V, which means its major alloying elements are 4% aluminum and 3% vanadium. There are five grades of what are known as commercially pure or unalloyed titanium, ASTM Grades 1 through 4, and 7. Each grade has a different impurity content, with Grade 1 being the most pure. Tensile strengths vary from 172 GPa for Grade 1 to 483 GPa for Grade 4.

Titanium carbide is an important product of titanium and is made by reacting titanium dioxide and carbon black at temperatures above 1800°C. It is compacted with cobalt or nickel for use in cutting tools and for heat-resistant parts and it is lighter weight and less costly than tungsten carbide, but it is more brittle in cutting tools.

One of the primary uses of titanium is as titanium oxide in the form of a white pigment. It is also widely used as titanium carbide for hard facings and for cutting tools. Primarily because of their high strength-to-weight ratio (specific strength), titanium and its alloys are widely used for aircraft structures requiring greater heat-resistance than aluminum alloys. Owing to their exceptional corrosion-resistance they are also used for chemical processing, desalination, power generation equipment, marine hardware, valve and pump parts, and prosthetic devices. Alloy Ti-6A1-4V is widely used in medical applications supplied to manufacturers as titanium billet, titanium bar, titanium plate, titanium sheet, titanium tubes, titanium extrusions or titanium forgings.

Titanium is also found in a shape memory alloy (SMA) material called Nitinol, which is a titanium alloyed with nickel that exhibits superelastic behavior. It is a corrosion resistant, biocompatible material that has a shape memory property, making it useful for implantable devices requiring an initial shape for insertion and a final shape once in place. The properties of Nitinol rely on its dynamic crystalline structure, which is sensitive to external stress and temperature. The alloy has three defined temperature phases that influence its behavior:

Austenite Phase: This temperature is above the transition temperature and varies depending upon the exact composition of the Nitinol alloy; commercial alloys usually have transitional temperatures between 70 and 130°C (158 to 266°F). The yield strength with which the material tries to return to its original shape is considerable; 35,000 to 70,000 psi. Crystalline structure is cubic. Martensitic Phase: In this low-temperature phase the crystal structure is needle-like, with the crystals aligned. The alloy may be bent or formed easily using a deformation pressure of 10,000 to 20,000 psi. Bending transforms the crystalline structure of the alloy by producing internal stresses.

Annealing Phase: In this high-temperature phase the alloy will reorient its (cubic) crystalline structure to "remember" its present shape. The annealing phase for Nitinol wire is in the range of 540°C.
When at room temperature Nitinol is in the martensitic phase and can be deformed as required. When the new shape is heated above its transitional temperature (austenite phase), the crystalline structure changes from needle-like to cubic. The resulting cubic structure does not fit into the same space as the needle-like structures formed when the alloy was bent.

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Super Alloy Parts in Aviation

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The first successful flights of jet engine-powered airplanes (in World War II, by the German and British military) were made with materials-limited engines of relatively modest performance. As they advanced, jet engines continued to be materials oriented. Nonetheless, examination of materials progress since 1942 shows a spectacular series of developments that permitted uninterrupted increases in temperature and operating stress. The developments were both process- and alloy-oriented, and often a combination of the two. As a result the net 800-lb thrust of the 1942 Whittle engine has risen to the level of 65,000 lb-a factor of 80 in a little over 40 years.

Initially, cobalt-base alloys emerged as the leaders for blade manufacture, while iron-base alloys served for lower temperature requirements, disks, for example. From more or less improved conventional practice, wrought alloys, such as S-816, gave way to the coarse-grained precision-cast cobalt-base alloy parts. Then, industry learned how to control the grain size and structure, designers learned how to live with less-than-desired ductilities, and operating temperatures climbed to 815 °C (1500 °F). Precision casting of super alloy parts, then and now, continue to play a commanding role in the super alloy world.

There were parallel developments in Ni-base systems, the valuable, flexible, and now dominant -y/,y'-strengthened alloys. Here, it took the process development of vacuum metallurgy to make possible the production of strong "high alloy" compositions by controlling the impurity levels. Then still higher alloy contents, leading to greater

strength and temperature potential, were realized through the development of remelting technologies, of which vacuum arc remelting is the most outstanding. These developments required unparalleled efforts by research and development groups to demonstrate and evaluate the roles of alloy composition and structure, to use the benefit of purity levels previously considered unattainable, and to develop advanced techniques to further modify the structures and the chemistries to solve special problems. Ultimately, this led to the exciting developments of directionally solidified and single-crystal blades, the latter reaching engine application only very recently.

Austenitic super alloy parts.

Throughout this period, the concern among metallurgists, designers, and manufacturers was always that the nickel-base and cobalt-base alloys ultimately would have to be replaced with higher-melting alloy systems, the refractory metals. This is hardly surprising when one realizes that increased alloying tends to produce lower-melting alloys; here were alloys being used at higher and higher fractions of their melting temperatures!

At first, major efforts were made with alloys of molybdenum and columbium (niobium). These were without success for the then-planned operating temperatures and anticipated lifetimes, but they may still hold promise for temperatures above about 1100 °C (2000 °F) if suitable coatings can be found. Excellent strength levels were realized and some promising coatings were developed, but expected lifetimes were not realized. Later, chromium-base alloys looked to be a natural, but ultimately were not successful because of brittleness problems.

We must also mention the early trials with cermets, and the first of a series of ceramic-age developments from 1950 onwards, both of which produced interesting solid structures, but still no acceptable applications in the super alloy competition. The austenitic super alloys remained dominant.

With the advent of rapid solidification processing, alloys of still more complexity are being developed and studied, now with the advantage of even closer control over impurity segregation and structure of desired phases. Further, production of superfine grain sizes and structures in the powder metallurgy area makes superplasticity easy to achieve and use. Nominally, cast alloys such as IN-100 and Mar-M 509 are made very strong at low and intermediate temperatures and are easily formable into complex shapes, including near-net-shapes. In the 1960s, who would ever have predicted that IN-100, a casting alloy, could be made to be superplastic and a candidate for disk applications at about 650-700 °C (1200-1300 °F)? Superplastic structures can be expected to have a major impact on super alloy technology.

ODS super alloy parts.

Finally, we are beginning to see significant applications of ODS (oxide-dispersion-strengthened) alloys, again using a blend of processes and alloying techniques developed over the intervening years. Mechanical alloying, and now the use of RS (rapid solidification; fine, fully alloyed powders), will permit use of ODS nickelbase and cobalt-base alloys to temperatures in excess of 1100 °C (2000 °F).

Use at 1100 °C (2000 °F) and above for alloys melting under 1400 °C (2550 °F)? Use in excess of 80% of the absolute melting temperature? Yes, that time has arrived. Even higher fractions of the melting point may be achieved with metalmatrix composites.

In summary, the extremely effective interplay of alloying processes with alloy compositions and structures, coupled with excellent supporting scientific studies of structures, properties, and stability have given the super alloys an engineering position never dreamed of by their early proponents!

Alternative alloys and materials are being sought but have not yet emerged. These new materials are being studied to replace or supercede super alloy parts.

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Aviation As a Leisure Option

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AppId is over the quota

There are very many people who are today taking up aviation as a leisure option. Flying and engineering enthusiasts have gone into aviation as clubs, teams and individuals looking to enjoy the thrills that the skies have to offer. All around the world there are people engaged in aviation at different levels and in different ways. There are those who take on flying as pilots purely looking to have a good time through adventures and tours. Others are involved in the engineering side of aviation and are constantly working on planes during their free time. We have others still who collect aviation memorabilia and toys. These collectors will sometime travel to far off places in pursuit of what they consider an important piece of aviation. Along with collecting items, aviation photographers are another group interested in aviation for purely recreational purposes.

Even though those engaged in aviation for leisure take it up for recreation purposes, many of them end up making money from it. There are many pilots who begin flying for fun and end up as guides on flying tours. Having flown over certain areas for a long time they become experts on various interesting aspects of these places. People looking to go on tours of such places will look for an experience pilot who is knowledgeable and informed about the location. After a while the hobby of flying for fun becomes a source of income.

Aviation engineering enthusiasts have also made money from their hobby. Some have re-constructed planes and managed to sell them to collectors for very good prices. Engineers have also come up with competitions where recognition is the main reward of the hard work they put in for months or even years.

Collectors and photographers have also managed to make some money from their hobbies in aviation. There are those who have sold pictures, items and toys that are considered classics. Even though the main aim is not to collect the toys and items for sale, there are occasions when an irresistible offer will come along. Photographers have more opportunities to make regular income from their hobby though they will often make less money as compared to the other aviation enthusiasts.

It is important to point out that, engineers and pilots who are involved in aviation as a hobby are also required to obtain licenses that will allow them to legally fly and engineer planes that are actively flying. This is because of the safety and security concerns that relate to aviation. Apart from obtaining licensing, those taking up aviation as a hobby should be aware of the fact that these hobbies can be quite expensive. Those who are able to work in teams or clubs will find it cheaper as they can share the costs that are as a result of their hobby.

Aviation as a leisure option provides thrills, challenges and opportunities that few other hobbies can afford. A good place to get started is by finding other aviation enthusiasts near you and getting to know what kind of activities they are involved in. You can then expect to have lots of fun as you join the world of recreational aviation.

As a bush and aerial survey pilot. I have been through the entire process of pilot training from a Private Pilot License, Instrument Rating through to a Commercial Pilot License.

I know how hard it is to break into the aviation industry when one has little or no experience. I have therefore created website and aviation information directory: Global Aviation Guide, for pilots, flight engineers, cabin crew, and aviation enthusiasts. At the Global Aviation Guide website you will find a wealth of aviation articles, aviation jobs, flight schools, and general aviation information.

I have worked in various career fields most recently as an Instructional Designer and Technical writer. This helps me understand the importance of creating and writing quality articles and providing quality information. Find quality articles that I have created on the Global Aviation Guide website: http://www.globalaviationguide.com/articles/

Heavy Aircraft Water Takeoffs - Multi-Step Float Designs Discussed

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AppId is over the quota

It is amazing how much energy it takes to get a large float plane or seaplane off the deck and into the air. First of all, we have to understand that water is 750 times denser than air, and that's a lot to overcome. Then getting the aircraft at of the water and up on the surface also takes a lot of power, and it takes a lot of power to get the aircraft up on the step, and to break free from the surface of the water. All that energy required means that float planes and seaplanes need a tremendous amount of power.

Because of these great big large engines and they need to create so much lift to break free from that heavy water, they also require more fuel, and wings with a large camber, the type of design that is not really made for high-speed. Therein lies the problem. Now then, I suppose in the future with new materials some of these problems can be fixed. The aircraft will be lighter, the wing will be able to shape shift, and it won't take so much power to get the aircraft into the air.

Still, there's another component and a component that has to do with aerodynamics, fluid dynamics, and all of the corresponding dynamics during that transition period. That's what I'd like to talk to you about today. I would like to talk to you about conceptual designs for seaplanes and float planes during that transition from water to air. Perhaps, we need to redesign these aircraft with not only one step on the bottom of the float, but perhaps multi-steps. Or better yet floats which shape shift as the aircraft accelerates on the water, always remaining the optimum needed to break free from the water and get into the ground effect - flight.

Many float planes have wing floats, which become airborne well prior to the main floats, or the fuselage which is also designed as a float on the bottom. As the Wing starts to create lift, and the buoyancy shifts on the fuselage float and it is pulled out of the water. You could consider that one step, and then the fuselage itself has a step as the aircraft accelerates it comes up on that step, as it gets closer to flying speed.

Now then, what if we could shape shift the Wing floats and what if we could change the camber of the wing once it became airborne and was accelerating through the ground cushion? If we could do that, we could lower the amount of fuel required for take-off, and the amount of energy the aircraft had to produce to get airborne.

We would also be able to have the aircraft take-off quicker in a shorter distance. All of this would make the aircraft more efficient, and provide for less wear and tear when taking-off in choppy water, and we could solve a huge number of problems we have today with the inefficiencies in flow planes and seaplanes. Indeed I hope you will please consider all this and think on it.

Lance Winslow is a retired Founder of a Nationwide Franchise Chain, and now runs the Online Think Tank. Lance Winslow believes writing 24,500 articles by August 24th or 25th will be difficult because all the letters on his keyboard are now worn off now..

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