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About Flying Boats

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There are many different types of aircraft and aviation vessels. Between the hot air balloons and the space ships, aviation has many types of vessels in between. While space ships may be the conventionally accepted kings of the skies, there are others who believe that UFOs are actually at the top of the flying vessels food chain. However, moving away from outer space and getting back to our planet, the flying boat is one of the very interesting aircraft that is in our skies.

Flying boats are a type of seaplane that floats on water on its fuselage. The first such aircraft was made in 1910 and they gradually gained popularity over the years up until the end of World War Two due to their ability to land and take off on water. At that time land-based runways were uncommon and presented a prohibitive cost. After the Second World War, development of runways on land led to a gradual move from the use of flying boats. Their use was mainly left to military and recreational aviation where they continue to be used in maritime security operations, air-to-sea rescue missions, putting out forest fires, accessing undeveloped areas with no or poor infrastructure and more. Some examples of modern-day flying boats include the Beriev Be-200 twinjet, the Canadair CL-215, the Bombardier 415 and the ShinMaywa US-2.

The flying boat is designed with a fuselage that provides buoyancy so that it can float on water. Some of this aircrafts are fitted with floats under their wings so as to stabilize them while on the water. This is what makes them different from floatplanes, which have floats under their fuselage for the purpose of providing buoyancy. The fuselage of a floatplane does not come into contact with the water and they are in many cases smaller aircraft as compared to the flying boats.

Piloting a flying boat will for obvious reasons require a slightly different kind of training especially with regards to take off and landing. In the air however, most of the handling in airplanes is very similar to a regular aircraft. Most of the pilots currently operating flying boats have been trained in the military where the use of these kinds of craft still persists. Outside the military flying boats are found with adventurers and tour operators who want to give their clients a unique experience. They are however not very common and there are countries in different parts of the world where there are no flying boats operating.

An opportunity to enjoy a ride on a flying boat is one of the most exciting experiences anyone can hope to enjoy. Taking off from the water and getting to land on it can be a bit scary but it's one of the things you do not get to go through every other day. If you ever have the rare opportunity to fly in this type of aircraft it would be best you take it, as it is quickly becoming an opportunity that is hard to come by.

As a bush and aerial survey pilot. I have been through the entire process of pilot training from a Private Pilot License, Instrument Rating through to a Commercial Pilot License.

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On-Site Non-Destructive-Testing of Turbine Discs

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On-site Non-destructive-testing of turbine discs

The flaws in turbine discs are of great significance; since they represent potential sites for the nucleation of cracks, they threaten the integrity of the component and reduce the fatigue life. For this reason, much emphasis is placed on using NDT (where possible on-site non-destructive-testing) to characterise the dimensions of the flaws, both during the manufacturing of the turbine disc - i.e. before the turbine disc enters service for the first time - to ensure that it is of acceptable quality, and then whenever the disc is removed from the engine, prior to a decision being made to place it back in service. Obviously, the first situation arises regardless of the lifing method employed, the second only when the damage-tolerant method is being used.

To place turbine discs back in service needs the issuing of Aircraft Form 1 Release Certificates. The various NDT methods which are suitable include (i) liquid penetrant testing, most usually dye penetrant inspection, which fluoresces under ultra-violet light, thus providing a measure of the length of each crack exposed to the surface; (ii) eddy current inspection, which enables a quantitative estimate of the crack depth, but only for cracks located at or near the surface; (iii) X-ray radiography, which has the power to penetrate relatively thick sections, but which cannot usually resolve the finest flaws that are present; and (iv) ultrasonic testing - the use of high frequency sound waves for the detection of inclusions, coarse grains, shrinkage pipe, tears, seams and laps. In practice, for turbine disc applications, this final method is of the greatest importance. Then turbine discs can be back in service with the issuing of Aircraft Form 1 Release Certificates.

Ultrasonic inspection

To illustrate the use of ultrasonic inspection for on-site non-destructive-testing of turbine discs in this context, consider its application to a forged and heat-treated disc, which will have been machined to a pre-specified geometry known as the 'sonic shape' or 'condition of supply'. To enable ease of ultrasonic inspection, the features of the disc (for example, the blade root sockets, cover plate and flanges) are not introduced by the machining process as yet, so that, at this stage, it contains only a few, flat surfaces which intersect at 90° angles. To detect the smallest flaws, care is taken also with the surface finish. Production and measurement of the ultrasonic waves is accomplished via the use of piezoelectric transducers and receivers - these rely upon crystals, such as quartz or barium titanate, which display a strong inverse piezoelectric effect. Since ultrasonic waves are attenuated strongly by air, the disc and transducer are either kept immersed in water during inspection, or else a thin layer of coupling fluid is maintained between the two; the waves are attenuated only very weakly by the material itself, so that very thick sections can be analysed.

In practice, the waves are sent through the component in at least two different ways. First, the so-called 'straightbeam top inspection' is carried out to detect planar flaws lying parallel to surfaces whose normal lies parallel to the axis of the forging; for this purpose, a longitudinal ultrasonic beam is directed parallel to the normal to these same surfaces, using a single pulse-echo transducer, 13-40 mm in diameter, at a frequency in the range 1-5 MHz. Calibration is carried out using standard 50 mm diameter cylindrical reference blocks of varying heights, into which flat-bottomed holes are machined to simulate artificial flaws of different sizes located at different depths.

Detection sensitivity is normally set to 10% of the size of the flaw machined into the calibration block. A second set of tests are conducted using shear waves, to detect flaws that have an axial radial orientation; for this, an angle-beam transducer is used to introduce a beam at 45° to the surface normal, and inspection is performed by scanning in the circumferential direction, both clockwise and anti-clockwise, around the periphery of the forging. Calibration notches -typically 25 mm long and either V -shaped or rectangular- are cut axially on the inner and outer surfaces of the forging, with a width not exceeding twice the depth. The sensitivity of the detection is established by first adjusting the instrument controls to obtain a minimum 13 mm sweep-to-peak signal from the calibration notch on the outer surface, followed by a measurement of the response from the notch on the inside surface; the peaks corresponding to the two notches are connected thus establishing a reference line.

With regard to the inspection of different superalloys, the background noise is found to be significantly greater for coarse-grained material, and therefore the sensitivity of flaw detection is then much reduced; small flaws are then more likely to be undetected.

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Pilot's Operating Handbooks 101

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The term Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH), originated from the US General Aviation Manufacturer's Association who introduced the 'GAMA Specification No. 1' format for the 'Pilot's Operating Handbook' in 1975.

The 'GAMA Specification No. 1' format for the 'Pilot's Operating Handbook' (POH) was adopted in 1991 by ICAO in their Document 9516: Guidance on the Preparation of a Pilot's Operating Handbook for Light Aeroplanes, and is now required for all newly certified aircraft by ICAO member states. Most light aircraft listed initially registered in 1976 or later, have Pilot's Operating Handbooks (POHs) in this format.

POH Standard Format

The GAMA format was designed to enhance safety by providing a standardising ergonomic layout for use in flight.

It is recommended that pilots become familiar with the order and contents of each section, as follows:

Section 1 General: Definitions and abbreviations;
Section 2 Limitations: Specific operating limits, placards and specifications;
Section 3 Emergencies: Complete descriptions of action in the event of any emergency or non-normal situation;
Section 4 Normal Operations: Complete descriptions of required actions for all normal situations;
Section 5 Performance: Performance graphs, typically for stall speeds, airspeed calibration, cross wind calculation, takeoff, climb, cruise, and landing;
Section 6 Weight and Balance: Loading specifications, limitations and loading graphs or tables;
Section 7 Systems Descriptions: Technical descriptions of aircraft systems, airframe, controls, fuel, engine, instruments, avionics and lights etc;
Section 8 Servicing and maintenance: Maintenance requirements, inspections, stowing, oil requirements etc.;
Section 9 Supplements: Supplement sections follow the format above for additional equipment or modification;
Section 10 Safety Information: General safety information and helpful operational recommendations which the manufacturer feels are pertinent to the operation of the aircraft.

Other Formats and Terms for the POH

The manufacturer's handbook is also often referred to as the approved Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM), or Aircraft Operating Manual (AOM) by aviation authorities, since it is a manual containing all the information relevant to flight operations.

Prior to 1976, many light aircraft manufacturers, including Cessna, referred to the manfacturer's operating handbook as an Owners Manual, using the same convention as a motor vehicle, and many of these manuals contained no more information than that provided for your motor vehicle.

A copy of a POH that is not issued to an aircraft is sometimes called a 'Pilot's Information Manual' and can be a very useful addition to one's home reference library.

Larger aircraft normally refer to the POH as a 'Flight Crew Operating Manual' (FCOM), being a larger document, often in a number of volumes, which may be used by a flight engineer as well as pilots. Larger aircraft require a different format because of the larger amount of content contained in the operating handbooks and because of the different methods of operating in multi-crew environments.

What To Do When There is No Information Specified in the POH?

The is the master document for all flight information, and pilot's may not deviate from the POH unless specific approval has been granted by the relevant aviation authority for such deviation. However there are many situations which are not catered for in the POH.

Often there are normal situations where the POH does not specify how the operation should be conducted, yet, unless specified as a limitation, the situation is not forbidden.

One common example is performance factors for operation on surfaces other than paved or dry grass runways. The operations are allowed, but no figures are provided for the multiple of other factors that can affect takeoff and landing distances, for example soft sand, rough dirt, long grass, wet surfaces, standing water, slush or snow. The UKCAA has published a list of performance modifications (link) to allow for non-POH situations, and, in the absence of guidance from your own aviation authority or from the aircraft operator's approved company operations manual, it is recommended that these should be used.

Another common omission on early Owners Manuals is emergencies and abnormal operations, for example 1960's and earlier Cessna Owners Manuals have no information about emergency procedures except for glide performance graphs. Since we all know this is not the limit of failures, this leaves a pilot faced with two choices, to apply common sense and techniques learned on similar types during training, or to use the procedures specified in later model POHs for the same type, bearing in mind any differences.

Wherever in doubt, seek the guidance of the local aviation authority operations department.

Updating a POH

It is important to remember that it is issued to a specific model and serial number, and includes all applicable supplements and modifications.

The POH is approved by the aviation authority during type certification, and issued to an aircraft when it is manufactured as part of the initial airworthiness certificate. Thereafter, the operator, in conjunction with the maintenance provider, must ensure the POH is kept up to date

Changes to the POH will be one or two types:

- Those issued by the manufacturer due to new discoveries in safety practices;
- Those required by the inclusion of post manufacture modifications.

The first type, which will normally come in the form of an aeronautical directive or service bulletin, will contain instructions for insertion and removal of the effected pages along with a new list of effective pages.

The second type will come in the form of a 'POH Supplement'. The POH supplement forms part of the Supplemental Type Certificate (STC), which is issued to all approved aircraft modifications by the aviation authority in the state of manufacture.

A POH supplement which does not affect handling is a straight forward affair, since it is simply inserted in section 9 of the POH, with an inclusion in the table of contents, or for non GAMA format POHs, inserted at the end of the POH or aircraft document folder.

Where a POH supplement has characteristics that affect aircraft operation, for example STOL kits or engine upgrades, there is a more complicated and important process which is normally not specified clearly in the STC documentation. Because these characteristics can change parts of the normal operating, limitations, performance, and emergencies sections, these sections also need to be modified. Wherever a STC supersedes data in these sections, the changed information must be crossed out and a note referring to the supplement included. Where possible a copy of the information from the supplement should also be included in the relevant section for more ergonomic reference. If this is not done, a pilot can easily be misled by referring to the incorrect information in the main part of the POH without realising it has been changed by the supplement. If yoou or your maintenance provider are unsure about the procedure, refer to your local aviation authority's airworthiness section for guidance.

Type Transition Training and Ground Reference

For home study, ground training, a good training manual should be used, in conjunction with a Pilot Information Manual, which will ensure all the background information on a type is obtained, whilst becoming familiar with the Pilot's Operating Handbook.

For reference prior to flight, only the approved POH from on board the aircraft you are going to be flying, should be used. It should be obvious to you now, that even if you have a copy of a POH for the same model, the aircraft you are flying may have supplements for modifications and additional equipment which affect operation.

About the Author:

Danielle Bruckert is a co-author of the popular Cessna Training Manual series, available for the Cessna 152, Cessna 172, Cessna 182, Cessna 206, and Cessna 210, http://www.redskyventures.org/.

To provide support for this training series and other text books she writes, she has created a large resource of free downloadable pilot's operating handbooks, maintenance manuals and pilot resources, for Cessna and other aircraft, available at http://www.redskyventures.org/free_stuff.php.

Red Sky Ventures asks for your help in collecting more POHs, to improve aviation safety through shared knowledge.

Wireless Options For A Pilot Aviation Headset

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Technological innovations of recent years have freed consumers from the restrictions of wired devices. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and mobile phones have essentially forced corded electronics into museums and history books. Following suit, aviation headset manufacturers have introduced a variety of choices for cordless aviator earphones.

Pilot aviation headset options have always offered aviators a fairly wide selection of features and prices. Within the past decade or so, headset companies have introduced models that incorporate the latest in cell phone and audio entertainment. More recently, earphone selections became equipped with Bluetooth offerings of these same audio and mobile phone features, freeing pilots from connecting to these devices via cords. Now, pilot headphones themselves are available without the restrictions of wired connections. Though wireless models have been around for several years now, new models and advanced features continue to hit the market.

How do they work?
Wireless headsets utilize the 2.4 GHz radio frequency band, which is commonly used for a variety of wireless data technologies around the world. The headsets work with a base unit, which plugs into the aircraft's radio/comm. system through conventional headset jacks to send and receive transmissions over the 2.4 GHz RF (radio frequency). Audio transmissions jump between the headset and base unit, much like a cordless phone works with its docking station, to provide pilots with untethered cockpit communications.

Advantages of Going Wireless
Besides the obvious freedom of being unleashed from the aircraft's communications system, wireless headsets provide many other benefits for users. At the top of the list is the lack of cords to work around. In the small cockpits of general aviation airplanes, headset cords are known to get caught in seat rails, tripped on by occupants entering and exiting the aircraft, and forgotten by wearers who attempt to move beyond the cord's length. Wireless headphones negate the possibilities of cord damage and whiplash their wired brethren can incur.

Cordless headsets also provide a degree of utility not offered by tethered models. On noisy airport ramps, pilots now have the option of wearing their headsets during external preflight inspections and fueling operations. Audio and mobile phone Bluetooth features also permit pilots to make phone calls during these activities, enabling them to file a flight plan, reserve a car, or order fuel. This hands-free ability to multitask saves pilots time while also protecting their hearing. In addition, pilots can continue to converse with occupants of the aircraft as long as they remain within the headset's usable range.

The selection of the 2.4GHz frequency is also a wise choice. Several nations around the world have reserved this frequency for wireless technologies, so these headsets are usable in numerous locales. As they employ the simplicity of cordless phone-like operation, use is easy and intuitive.

Drawbacks of Wireless Earphones
Cordless headphone technology is not without a few drawbacks. The lack of cords means the wireless system must employ a battery to function. Like all battery-powered devices, the cordless system must be periodically recharged to continue to operate. In addition, the global popularity of the 2.4 GHz frequency means the bandwidth can occasionally become saturated, resulting in possible interference. The requirement for a base unit also means the system is not completely free of wires, since the base device must be plugged into the aircraft's radio/comm. system. However, these few drawbacks are usually minor issues and easily tolerable for the system's positive attributes.

For greater cockpit freedom and utility, consider the benefits of a wireless pilot aviation headset. The ongoing development of wireless technology means aviation earphone manufacturers will continue to create and introduce new cordless options. For your next pair of headphones, consider the freedom of cutting the cord.

For more information regarding Pilot Aviation Headset, Please visit Flyfaro.com.

Aircraft Fuel Efficiency - What's In The Future?

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Alternative Fuels

The rising fuel costs, energy supply, security and aviation emissions have created a need for a fresh look at alternative fuels. Some new fuel types being reviewed include:

Synthetic fuels

Known as synfuel, this is any liquid fuel created from coal, natural gas or biomass. It can also refer to fuels derived from oil shale, tar sand, waste plastics or the fermentation of biomatter. Several large companies are developing coal- or gas-to-liquids processes including Sasol, Shell, Exxon, Statoil, Rentech and Syntroleum.

Biofuels

Biofuel is made from converted agricultural crops like soy. Over the last two years, there has been an increase in interest in biofuels in the aviation industry. For example, British Airways recently announced the construction of a waste biomass gasification plant to produce renewable aviation biofuels. IATA announced that five airlines successfully tested biofuels and that certification is expected by 2011. To put this in perspective, in the US alone, aviation biofuel is estimated to be a $100 billion plus opportunity.

Ethanol fuel

While mostly used to power cars, it can be used to power other vehicles such as farm tractors. It is hoped that it can be used for airplanes as well. It is typically combined with gasoline in any concentration up to pure ethanol.

New Technologies

Significant enhancements to aircraft have contributed to fuel efficiency. These include airframe design, engine technology and rising load factors. While finding alternative sources to existing aircraft fuel are important, the continual improvement of aircraft fuel efficiency also calls for enhancements to aircraft design and technology.

Revisiting Technology

In 1983, General Electric engineers experimented with an "unducted fan" engine. By eliminating the external casing, airflow through the blades was increased, giving more power for the same amount of fuel. Unfortunately, the engine was quite loud and the project shelved once fuel prices dropped.

Recently, GE began wind-tunnel testing a smaller, scaled set of the blades. The engineers are redesigning the original blades to evenly distribute the air coming off the tips when they spin at supersonic speeds, which should reduce the noise. The engine is designed to save fuel by tilting the blades to control speed, allowing the turbine to run at a constant, more efficient rate. The design is estimated to be ready for midsize jets around the year 2020.

Diesel Engines

Recently Diamond Aircraft, an Austrian airplane designer, received certification from the FAA for its new DA42, powered by two turbocharged AE300 motors. The AE300 can produce 100 percent power to 11,000 feet thanks to the turbochargers, powering the twin engine airplane to a 152 knot cruise speed while consuming just over 5 gallons of fuel per hour in each engine.

Diesel engine conversion was a US STCed for many Cessna 182s in 2006. While modestly expensive, an aircraft owner will receive a 30 percent or more fuel savings making the overhaul worth investigating.

The Future

Many interesting alternative fuels and technology enhancements are under investigation, making the future of aircraft fuel efficiency much brighter than we have seen before. Some of the alternative fuels are available in the very near future; other enhancements still require significant development. Either way, an owner and/or pilot has options to increase aircraft fuel efficiency and save money.

Global Aircraft Service was founded by Greg Katonica and Paul McCain in 1998. Both have many years of experience in Fuel System Repairs. We are based at 4500 Claire Chennault, Addison, Texas 75001. We have a large facility that can accommodate most medium size corporate aircraft or we will travel to any site in the World.

Greg Katonica, President,
Global Aircraft Service, Inc.
4500 Claire Chennault Street, #103,
Addison, TX 75001
Ph: 972-267-6650

Related Links:

http://www.globalaircraftservice.com/
http://www.globalaircraftservice.com/fuel-systems.html

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The Best Sources of Information on Aviation

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We currently live in what is known as the information age. This is because the most important resource that anyone can have is information. The Internet happens to be the biggest source of information that we currently have and it covers almost every topic. Most companies, individuals, organizations, institutions and other groups have some sort of web presence where they share information about themselves, their interests and their areas of expertise. Since the Internet does not have moderators to check on all content that is posted online, there is currently a lot of misleading, fraudulent and even dangerous information accessible to all.

Since aviation is a highly sensitive undertaking, it is extremely important to ensure that all the information that those working in the industry consume is accurate. This is only possible by ensuring that your sources of information are reliable, professional and can be trusted. Pilots, engineers, flight attendants, air traffic controllers and other ground crew need to keep themselves up to date on national and international aviation issues. While getting the correct national information may be a much simpler affair, the international issues may not be as straight forward.

Establishing reliable news and information channels on the Internet will require a lot of research. You will need to compare what is presented in one website with other sources. This could involve sending emails or even calling national aviation bodies in the concerned countries. The national aviation organizations will in almost all cases provide you with the correct information. If you are able to corroborate most of the information available in a particular website, then you could consider them as a reliable source.

With the Internet however, it is important to constantly counter check information as some sources will be good today and fail the credibility test the next day. Until a particular source has proved reliable over time, frequent checks and counter checks must be conducted. With constantly changing rules and regulations, it is important to make sure you have the latest and most accurate information.

Reliable news channels are another excellent source of aviation information. Though they may not have extensive information especially on what they might consider to be minor issues, they will keep you updated on major aviation related happenings around the world. Depending on the reports indicated, you might need to confirm the story as there are sometimes errors made by journalists when reporting.

Similar to all other professions, working as a pilot or in any other position in the aviation industry will require constant reading. Books are among the best and most reliable sources of aviation information. You will rarely find publishers releasing books that are misleading or containing inaccuracies. A reading professional is definitely a leading professional. With the correct quality of information, all those working in the aviation industry will be able to offer better services to their clients.

As a bush and aerial survey pilot. I have been through the entire process of pilot training from a Private Pilot License, Instrument Rating through to a Commercial Pilot License.

I know how hard it is to break into the aviation industry when one has little or no experience. I have therefore created website and aviation information directory: Global Aviation Guide, for pilots, flight engineers, cabin crew, and aviation enthusiasts. At the Global Aviation Guide website you will find a wealth of aviation articles, aviation jobs, flight schools, and general aviation information.

I have worked in various career fields most recently as an Instructional Designer and Technical writer. This helps me understand the importance of creating and writing quality articles and providing quality information. Find quality articles that I have created on the Global Aviation Guide website: http://www.globalaviationguide.com/articles/

FAA Project Suspension - What It Means to the Aviation Industry

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Most people tied to the aviation industry are aware of Congress' recent failure to pass a bill to fund the FAA, and as a result, the agency's partial suspension of many projects nationwide. But why did it happen and what does it mean to the aviation industry?

House and Senate at an Impasse

When the House and Senate went on summer recess on August 2, they did so without reaching an agreement to renew the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) operating authority, which had expired July 22.

The crux of the standoff between the House Republicans and Senate Democrats was over rules that govern union elections at airlines and other transportation companies. The republicans want to make it more difficult to form unions, the Democrats disagree.

The two parties also disagreed over proposed budget cuts of $16.5 million in airline service subsidies to rural communities.

Airport Projects Put on Hold

The result of Congress not renewing a bill to federally fund the FAA was that the FAA put a halt on more than 200 airport expansion and renovation projects around the country. The resulting suspension put 4,000 FAA employees and - by some estimates - as many as 90,000 construction workers out of work without a paycheck.

The suspended projects did not involve air traffic control operations, but did include airport modernization projects worth $2.5 billion such as radar systems to prevent runway and taxiway collisions, installation of runway safety lights and construction of air-traffic control towers. The project suspension also puts an estimated 46,000 other related industry jobs at risk.

No Taxes for Government, Refunds for Passengers

In addition to leaving thousands of American workers without a job and pay, the FAA project suspension stands to cost the government millions in uncollected airline ticket taxes. The ticket tax is generally 7.5 percent of an airline ticket's base fare. That adds up to $30 million a day and about $200 million every week.

Now that the tax has been suspended, some airlines elected to keep their base fares the same saving airline passengers a few dollars. Other airlines increased their base fares, saving passengers nothing.

The IRS released a statement saying that airline passengers who purchased tickets before the airlines had to stop collecting ticket taxes for travel on or after July 23 may be entitled to a refund of tax paid. On its website IRS.gov, the IRS asked the airlines to repay eligible customers who request refunds. Those who don't receive one from the airlines can submit claims to the IRS under procedures being developed.

Temporary Truce until Mid-September

The budget standoff only lasted a few weeks. By mid-August, the House Republicans and Senate Democrats reached a truce allowing the FAA to resume full operations. However, full funding for the FAA was only approved to mid-September. Until then, the two parties will be working to find a longer-term resolution or risk further project suspensions, industry unemployment and lost airline tax revenues estimated in the millions. When airline taxes were reinstated, airlines that had increased their base fares reduced them again to avoid increased prices for passengers.

Tango Yankee, LLC is the parent company of Business Aircraft Center and Danbury Aviation, a self- and full-service aircraft and pilot planning center located at Danbury Municipal Airport that includes aircraft management, hangar storage, tie-downs and plane detailing. Tango Yankee, LLC is owned and operated by Santo Silvestro of New Canaan, CT, who is a pilot and aviation enthusiast.

Visit Business Aircraft Center's website at http://www.businessaircraftcenter.com/.